Pan-Africanism: More Than An Idea The Key To Africa's Liberation ~ OnNews

Pan-Africans understand that we can never reach our fullest potential while our limits are defined by outside groups. Thus, our political struggle is Out of these gatherings came some of the greatest minds and ideas in Black history. Here are just a few of the people who organized and guided the...Pan-Africanism posits a sense of a shared historical fate for Africans in the Americas, West Indies, and, on the continent itself, has centered on the Atlantic trade in slaves, African slavery, and European imperialism.PDF | This paper focuses on the pan-African vision of Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of independent Ghana, and how this vision and perhaps comparable only to Mwalimu Julius Nyerere. Pan-Africanism. became the cornerstone of his struggle for the independence of Ghana, other.Pan-Africanism can be said to have its origins in the struggles of the African people against enslavement and colonization[3] and this struggle may be traced back to the first resistance on slave ships—rebellions and suicides—through the constant plantation and colonial uprisings and the "Back...Pan-Africanism from below. This, of course, means rejecting the colonial model and its offspring. It requires the development of linkages between peoples through their own knowledge, institutions and methods - linkages that are not mediated by the former colonial states.

Pan-africanism | Encyclopedia.com

Pan-Africanism has covered calls for African unity (both as a continent and as a people), nationalism, independence, political and economic cooperation, and historical and cultural awareness (especially for Afrocentric versus Eurocentric interpretations).There are African-Americans who have classist & racist views of Africans. Afro-Brazillians are the biggest Uncle Toms on the planet, and Africans Okay, panafricanism is basically the polical unity of all Blacks around the world, irrespective of nationality , class, or creed. I used to be a Pan-Africanist...Dhanalakshmi. June 6, 2019, 5:38am #1. What idea did Pan-Africanism oppose?Pan-Africanism has always been about the unity of African people. When Henry Sylvester Williams organized the Pan-African Conference in 1900, the purpose of the conferences was to bring African people together. Williams didn't even have a particularly progressive or revolutionary vision at the time...

(PDF) Kwame Nkrumah and the panafrican vision: Between...

"Pan Africanism can be said to have its origins in the struggles of the African people against enslavement and colonisation" Dr Tajudeen Abdul-Raheem (Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century) And this struggle may be traced back to the first resistance...Pan-Africanism literally connotes to all-Africa (n) movement that embraces the ideology of liberation for However, unlike other pan-Africanists who advocated the repatriation of the African Diaspora to Africa, he advanced the idea of Negro colonization of central and south America and the Caribbean in...Pan Africanism was opposed to outside political interference and colonization of Africa. It advocated for independence and self-reliance of African states that would independently provide for their citizenry. Proponents of the ideology were opposed to external political and economic...Pan-Africanism was a god idea/concept. however, with top level corruption and rampant poverty, everyone wants to become a president for life. Pan-Africanism is dead, by all accounts. The concept of justice and equality set forth by the trailblazers has been turned into a more deceptive one, worst...Pan-Africanism. an ideology and movement that encourages the solidarity of Africans worldwide. It is based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, and political progress and aims to unify and uplift people of African descent. The ideology asserts that the fate of all African peoples and...

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Pan-Africanism is a global movement that aims to inspire and make stronger bonds of unity between all indigenous and diaspora ethnic groups of African descent. Based on a commonplace goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade, the movement extends past continental Africans with a considerable fortify base a number of the African diaspora within the Americas and Europe.[1][2]

Pan-Africanism can also be said to have its origins in the struggles of the African other people in opposition to enslavement and colonization[3] and this combat is also traced again to the primary resistance on slave ships—rebellions and suicides—through the consistent plantation and colonial uprisings and the "Back to Africa" movements of the nineteenth century. Based on the trust that harmony is vital to financial, social and political growth and objectives to "unify and uplift" people of African descent.[4]

At its core, Pan-Africanism is a belief that "African people, both on the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a common destiny".[5] Pan-Africanist intellectual, cultural and political movements generally tend to view all Africans and descendants of Africans as belonging to a unmarried "race" and sharing cultural unity. Pan-Africanism posits a sense of a shared historic fate for Africans in America, West Indies and at the continent itself targeted on the Atlantic industry in slaves, African slavery and European imperialism.[6]

The Organization of African Unity (now the African Union) used to be established in 1963 to safeguard the sovereignty and territorial integrity of its Member States and to promote world family members within the framework of the United Nations.[7] The African Union Commission has its seat in Addis Ababa and the Pan-African Parliament has its seat in Johannesburg and Midrand.[8]

Overview

Malcolm X Kwame Nkrumah, an icon of Pan-Africanism

Pan-Africanism stresses the need for "collective self-reliance".[9] Pan-Africanism exists as a governmental and grassroots function. Pan-African advocates come with leaders similar to Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Haile Selassie, Julius Nyerere, Ahmed Sékou Touré, Kwame Nkrumah, King Sobhuza II, Robert Mugabe, Thomas Sankara, Dr. John Pombe Magufuli and Muammar Gaddafi, grassroots organizers equivalent to Joseph Robert Love, Marcus Garvey and Malcolm X, lecturers such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Anténor Firmin and others in the diaspora.[10][11][12][13] Pan-Africanists believe that team spirit will permit the continent to meet its attainable to independently provide for all its people. Crucially, an all-African alliance would empower African other people globally.

The realization of the Pan-African objective would lead to "power consolidation in Africa", which "would compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing a fiercer psychological energy and political assertion ... that would unsettle social and political (power) structures...in the Americas".[14]

Advocates of Pan-Africanism—i.e. "Pan-Africans" or "Pan-Africanists"—incessantly champion socialist principles and have a tendency to be adverse to exterior political and economic involvement at the continent. Critics accuse the ideology of homogenizing the enjoy of folks of African descent. They additionally level to the difficulties of reconciling present divisions within countries at the continent and inside communities in the diaspora.[14]

History

Invitation to Pan-African Conference at Westminster Town Hall, London, July 1900 Jamaican Marcus Garvey in an army uniform as the "Provisional President of Africa" all through a parade on the opening day of the once a year Convention of the Negro Peoples of the World on Lenox Avenue in Harlem, New York City, 1922

As a philosophy, Pan-Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, creative, medical, and philosophical legacies of Africans from past occasions to the current. Pan-Africanism as a moral system strains its origins from precedent days, and promotes values which are the fabricated from the African civilisations and the struggles in opposition to slavery, racism, colonialism, and neo-colonialism.[10]

Coinciding with a large number of New World slave insurrections; highlighted by means of the Haitian Revolution, the tip of the 19th century birthed an intercontinental pro-African political motion which sought to unify disparate campaigns in the objective to finish oppression. Another essential political form of a spiritual Pan-Africanist worldview seemed in the type of Ethiopianism.[15] In London, the Sons of Africa was once a political crew addressed via Quobna Ottobah Cugoano within the 1791 edition of his e-book Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery. The staff addressed conferences and organised letter-writing campaigns, printed campaigning subject material and visited parliament. They wrote to figures such as Granville Sharp, William Pitt and different members of the white abolition movement, as well as King George III and the Prince of Wales, the longer term George IV.

Modern Pan-Africanism began across the get started of the 20 th century. The African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, was established round 1897 via Henry Sylvester Williams, who organized the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900.[16][17][18]

With the independence of Ghana in March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah was once elected as the first Prime Minister and President of the State.[19] Nkrumah emerged as a big advocate for the harmony of Independent Africa. The Ghanaian President embodied a political activist option to Pan-Africanism as he championed the "quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent".[20] This period represented a "golden age of high pan-African ambitions"; the continent had experienced revolution and decolonization from Western powers and the narrative of rebirth and harmony had won momentum within the Pan-African motion.[20] Nkrumah's Pan-African ideas meant for a union between the Independent African states upon a reputation in their commonality (i.e. suppression beneath imperialism). Pan-Africanism below Nkrumah developed previous the assumptions of a racially exclusive movement associated with black Africa, and adopted a political discourse of regional solidarity [21]

In April 1958, Nkrumah hosted the primary All-African Peoples' Conference (AAPC) in Accra, Ghana. This Conference invited delegates of political movements and primary political leaders. With the exception of South Africa, all Independent States of the Continent attended: Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan.[21] This Conference signified a enormous tournament in the Pan-African movement, because it revealed a political and social union between those considered Arabic states and the black African areas. Further, the Conference espoused a not unusual African Nationalist id, among the States, of cohesion and anti-Imperialism. Frantz Fanon, journalist, freedom fighter and a member of the Algerian FLN birthday celebration attended the conference as a delegate for Algeria.[22]

Considering the armed fight of the FLN in opposition to French colonial rule, the attendees of the Conference agreed to fortify the combat of the ones States beneath colonial oppression. This encouraged the dedication of direct involvement within the "emancipation of the Continent; thus, a fight against colonial pressures on South Africa was declared and the full support of the FLN struggle in Algeria, against French colonial rule".[23]Tom Mboya, Kenyan business unionist and anti-colonial activist, also attended this convention. This consult with inspired him to extend the tempo of political job aimed toward agitating for Kenya's independence.[24]

In the years following 1958, Accra Conference also marked the established order of a brand new foreign coverage of non-alignment as between the US and USSR, and the need to determine an "African Identity" in global affairs by way of advocating a team spirit between the African States on world relations. "This would be based on the Bandung Declaration, the Charter of the UN and on loyalty to UN decisions."[23]

In 1959, Nkrumah, President Sékou Touré of Guinea and President William Tubman of Liberia met at Sanniquellie and signed the Sanniquellie Declaration outlining the foundations for the fulfillment of the harmony of Independent African States whilst maintaining a national identity and independent constitutional construction.[25][26] The Declaration known as for a revised understanding of Pan-Africanism and the uniting of the Independent States.

In 1960, the second All-African Peoples' Conference used to be held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[27] The membership of the All-African Peoples' Organisation (AAPO) had increased with the inclusion of the "Algerian Provisional Government (as they had not yet won independence), Cameroun, Guinea, Nigeria, Somalia and the United Arab Republic".[28] The Conference highlighted diverging ideologies throughout the motion, as Nkrumah's name for a political and economic union between the Independent African States gained little settlement. The disagreements following 1960 gave rise to 2 rival factions within the Pan-African motion: the Casablanca Bloc and the Brazzaville Bloc.[29]

In 1962, Algeria gained independence from French colonial rule and Ahmed Ben Bella assumed Presidency. Ben Bella was a robust recommend for Pan-Africanism and an African Unity. Following the FLN's armed fight for liberation, Ben Bella spoke at the UN and espoused for Independent Africa's function in offering military and financial make stronger to the African liberation movements opposing apartheid and fighting Portuguese colonialism.[30] In seek of a united voice, in 1963 at an African Summit convention in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 32 African states met and established the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The creation of the OAU Charter took place at this Summit and defines a coordinated "effort to raise the standard of living of member States and defend their sovereignty" by way of supporting freedom opponents and decolonisation.[31] Thus, used to be the formation of the African Liberation Committee (ALC), throughout the 1963 Summit. Championing the fortify of liberation actions, was Algeria's President Ben Bella, instantly "donated 100 million francs to its finances and was one of the first countries, of the Organisation to boycott Portuguese and South African goods".[30]

In 1969, Algiers hosted the Pan-African Cultural Festival, on July 21 and it persisted for eight days.[32] At this second in historical past, Algeria stood as a "beacon of African and Third-World militancy,"[32] and would come to encourage fights against colonialism around the world. The competition attracted 1000's from African states and the African Diaspora, together with the Black Panthers. It represented the appliance of the tenets of the Algerian revolution to the rest of Africa, and symbolized the reshaping of the definition of Pan-African id below the typical experience of colonialism.[32] The Festival additional reinforced Algeria's President, Boumediene's status in Africa and the Third World.[32]

After the death of Kwame Nkrumah in 1972, Muammar Gaddafi assumed the mantle of chief of the Pan-Africanist movement and become essentially the most outspoken suggest of African Unity, like Nkrumah prior to him – for the advent of a "United States of Africa".[33]

In the United States, the term is carefully associated with Afrocentrism, an ideology of African-American id politics that emerged all over the civil rights movement of the Sixties to Nineteen Seventies.[34]

Concept

A mural in Ujiji, Tanzania

As at first conceived by Henry Sylvester Williams (despite the fact that some historians[35] credit the idea to Edward Wilmot Blyden), Pan-Africanism referred to the unity of all continental Africa.[36]

During apartheid South Africa there was a Pan Africanist Congress that dealt with the oppression of Africans in South Africa underneath Apartheid rule. Other Pan-Africanist organisations include: Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association-African Communities League, TransAfrica and the International People's Democratic Uhuru Movement.

Additionally, Pan-Africanism is noticed as an endeavour to go back to what is deemed by means of its proponents as singular, conventional African ideas about tradition, society, and values. Examples of this include Léopold Sédar Senghor's Négritude motion, and Mobutu Sese Seko's view of Authenticité.

An essential theme working via a lot Pan-Africanist literature issues the historical links between other international locations on the continent and the benefits of cooperation as some way of resisting imperialism and colonialism.

In the twenty first century, some Pan-Africanists aim to deal with globalisation and the issues of environmental justice. For example, on the conference "Pan-Africanism for a New Generation"[37] held on the University of Oxford, June 2011, Ledum Mittee, the current president of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), argued that environmental justice movements around the African continent must create horizontal linkages in an effort to higher protect the interests of threatened peoples and the ecological methods wherein they're embedded, and upon which their survival depends.

Some universities went as far as growing "Departments of Pan-African Studies" within the overdue Sixties. This comprises the California State University, the place that division was based in 1969 as an instantaneous reaction to the civil rights movement, and is nowadays dedicated to "teaching students about the African World Experience", to "demonstrate to the campus and the community the richness, vibrance, diversity, and vitality of African, African American, and Caribbean cultures" and to "presenting students and the community with an Afrocentric analysis" of anti-black racism.[38]Syracuse University additionally provides a master's stage in "Pan African Studies".[39]

Pan-African colors

Main articles: Pan-African flag and Pan-African colors The red, black, and green Black Nationalist flag designed by the UNIA in 1920

The flags of a lot of states in Africa and of Pan-African groups use green, yellow and purple. This color combination used to be firstly followed from the 1897 flag of Ethiopia, and used to be inspired through the fact that Ethiopia is the continent's oldest independent country,[40] thus making the Ethiopian green, yellow and purple the nearest visual representation of Pan-Africanism. This is compared to the Black Nationalist flag, representing political concept centred around the eugenicist caste-stratified colonial Americas.[41]

The UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) flag, is a tri-color flag consisting of three equivalent horizontal bands of (from top-down) crimson, black and inexperienced. The UNIA formally adopted it on August 13, 1920,[42] during its month-long conference at Madison Square Garden in New York.[43][44]

Variations of the flag were used in various countries and territories in Africa and the Americas to represent Black Nationalist ideologies. Among these are the flags of Malawi, Kenya and Saint Kitts and Nevis. Several Pan-African organizations and movements have also frequently hired the emblematic pink, black and inexperienced tri-color scheme in variety of contexts.

Maafa studies

Maafa is a facet of Pan-African research. The term collectively refers to 500 years of suffering (together with the existing) of people of African heritage thru slavery, imperialism, colonialism, and other sorts of oppression.[45][46] In this space of analysis, both the actual historical past and the legacy of that history are studied as a single discourse. The emphasis within the historical narrative is on African brokers, versus non-African agents.[47]

Political events and organizations

Muammar Gaddafi at the first Africa–Latin America summit in 2006 in Abuja, Nigeria In Africa Organisation of African Unity, succeeded through the African Union African Unification Front Rassemblement Démocratique Africain All-African People's Revolutionary Party All-African Trade Union Federation Convention People's Party (Ghana) Pan-African Renaissance[48] Economic Freedom Fighters (South Africa) Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (South Africa)In the Caribbean The Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit throughout the Office of the Prime Minister of Barbados.[49] African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa (Guyana) Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua and Barbuda) Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica)In the United Kingdom Pan-African FederationIn the United States The Council on African Affairs (CAA): based in 1937 by means of Max Yergan and Paul Robeson, the CAA was the first major U.S. organization whose focus was once on offering pertinent and up-to-date information about Pan-Africanism around the United States, in particular to African Americans. Probably probably the most a success campaign of the Council used to be for South African famine aid in 1946. The CAA was once hopeful that, following World War II, there can be a move against Third World independence below the trusteeship of the United Nations.[50] To the CAA's dismay, the proposals presented by way of the U.S. authorities to the conference in April/May 1945 set no transparent limits on the duration of colonialism and no motions towards permitting territorial possessions to move against self-government.[50] Liberal supporters deserted the CAA, and the federal government cracked down on its operations. In 1953 the CAA was charged with subversion beneath the McCarran Internal Security Act. Its main leaders, including Robeson, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Alphaeus Hunton (1903–70), were subjected to harassment, indictments, and when it comes to Hunton, imprisonment. Under the load of inside disputes, authorities repression, and fiscal hardships, the Council on African Affairs disbanded in 1955.[51] The US Organization used to be founded in 1965 by means of Maulana Karenga, following the Watts riots. It is based on the unreal African philosophy of kawaii, and is most likely best possible recognized for developing Kwanzaa and the Nguzo Saba ("seven principles"). In the phrases of its founder and chair, Karenga, "the essential task of our organization Us has been and remains to provide a philosophy, a set of principles and a program which inspires a personal and social practice that not only satisfies human need but transforms people in the process, making them self-conscious agents of their own life and liberation".[52]

Pan-African ideas and philosophies

Afrocentric Pan-Africanism

Afrocentric Pan-Africanism is espoused through Kwabena Faheem Ashanti in his ebook The Psychotechnology of Brainwashing: Crucifying Willie Lynch. Another more moderen motion that has developed from the early Afrocentric school is the Afrisecal motion or Afrisecaism of Francis Ohanyido, a Nigerian philosopher-poet.[53]Black nationalism is now and again associated with this form of Pan-Africanism.

Kawaida Main article: African philosophy § Kawaida Hip hop

Since the past due Seventies, hip hop has emerged as a formidable pressure that has partly shaped black identification worldwide. In his 2005 article "Hip-hop Turns 30: Whatcha Celebratin' For?", Greg Tate describes hip-hop tradition because the made of a Pan-African state of mind. It is an "ethnic enclave/empowerment zone that has served as a foothold for the poorest among us to get a grip on the land of the prosperous".[54] Hip-hop unifies the ones of African descent globally in its movement against better economic, social and political power. Andreana Clay in her article "Keepin' it Real: Black Youth, Hip-Hop Culture, and Black Identity" states that hip-hop provides the sector with "vivid illustrations of Black lived experience", growing bonds of black identity across the globe.[55] From a Pan-African perspective, hip-hop tradition is usually a conduit to authenticate a black id, and in doing so, creates a unifying and uplifting force amongst Africans that Pan-Africanism units out to reach.

Pan-African artwork

Further knowledge: African art Further data on Pan-African film festivals see: FESPACO and PAFF

See additionally

African Diaspora African nationalism Africana womanism Afro-pessimism Black nationalism First Pan-African Conference Les Afriques List of subjects associated with Black and African people Négritude Nigerian nationalism Pan African Writers' Association Pan-African Congress Pan-African Federation Pan-African Parliament Pan-nationalism TransAfrica World Festival of Black Arts La Raza Panhispanism

References

^ .mw-parser-output cite.quotationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"\"""\"""'""'".mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em heart/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .quotation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em middle/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .quotation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")appropriate 0.1em heart/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolour:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:lend a hand.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:linear-gradient(clear,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")correct 0.1em center/12px no-repeat.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codeshade:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;colour:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em.mw-parser-output .quotation .mw-selflinkfont-weight:inheritAustin, David (Fall 2007). 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"Edward Wilmot Blyden and Pan-Africanism: the ideological roots of Islam and Black nationalism in the United States". Muslim World, 87, 169–182. ^ Campbell, Crystal Z. (December 2006). "Sculpting a Pan-African Culture in the Art of Négritude: A Model for African Artist" (PDF). The Journal of Pan African Studies. 1 (6). Archived from the unique on June 1, 2015.CS1 maint: bot: authentic URL standing unknown (link) ^ Oxford University African Society Conference, Corpus Christi College, Oxford University, May 5, 2012. ^ "About Us". Csus.edu. Retrieved October 15, 2015. ^ The M.A. in Pan African Studies Archived October 25, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, African American Studies at Syracuse University. ^ Smith, Whitney (2001). Flag Lore of All Nations. Millbrook Press. p. 36. ISBN 0761317538. Retrieved October 7, 2014. ^ Lionel K., McPherson; Shelby, Tommie (Spring 2004). "Blackness and Blood: Interpreting African American Identity" (PDF). Philosophy and Public Affairs. 32 (2): 171–192. doi:10.1111/j.1088-4963.2004.00010.x. ^ Wikisource individuals, "The Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World", Wikisource, The Free Library. Retrieved October 6, 2007. ^ "25,000 Negroes Convene International Gathering Will Prepare Own Bill of Rights", The New York Times, August 2, 1920. Proquest. Retrieved October 5, 2007. ^ "Negroes Adopt Bill Of Rights: Convention Approves Plan for the African Republic and Sets to Work on Preparation of Constitution of the Colored Race Negro Complaints Aggression Condemned Recognition Demanded". The Christian Science Monitor, August 17, 1920. Proquest. Retrieved October 5, 2007. ^ "What Holocaust". Glenn Reitz. Archived from the unique on October 18, 2007. ^ "The Maafa, African Holocaust". Swagga. Archived from the unique on February 8, 2007. Retrieved January 28, 2007. ^ Ogunleye, Tolagbe (1997). "African American Folklore: Its Role in Reconstructing African American History". Journal of Black Studies. 27 (4): 435–455. doi:10.1177/002193479702700401. ISSN 0021-9347. JSTOR 2784725. S2CID 143527325. ^ "Pan-African Renaissance". ^ Worrell, Rodney (2005). Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-century Pan-African Formations in Barbados. New Academia Publishing, LLC. pp. 99–102. ISBN 978-0-9744934-6-6. ^ a b Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pp. 296–97. ^ "Council on African Affairs", African Activist Archive. ^ "Philosophy, Principles, and Program". The Organization Us. ^ "Francis Okechukwu Ohanyido". African Resource. October 7, 2006. ^ Tate, Greg, "Hip-hop Turns 30: Whatcha Celebratin' For?", Village Voice, January 4, 2005. ^ Clay, Andreana. "Keepin' it Real: Black Youth, Hip-Hop Culture, and Black Identity". In American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 46.10 (2003): 1346–58.

Further studying

Hakim Adi, Pan-Africanism: A History. London: Bloomsbury, 2018. Hakim Adi & Marika Sherwood, Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787, London: Routledgem 2003. Imanuel Geiss, Panafrikanismus. Zur Geschichte der Dekolonisation. Habilitation, EVA, Frankfurt am Main, 1968, English as: The Pan-African Movement, London: Methuen, 1974, ISBN 0-416-16710-1, and as: The Pan-African Movement. A history of Pan-Africanism in America, Europe and Africa, New York: Africana Publ., 1974, ISBN 0-8419-0161-9. Colin Legum, Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide, revised edition, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965. Tony Martin, Pan-African Connection: From Slavery to Garvey and Beyond, Dover: The Majority Press, 1985.

External hyperlinks

SNCC Digital Gateway: Pan-Africanism—Digital documentary website created via the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside-out African Union African Code Unity Through Diversity A-APRP Website The Major Pan-African information and articles website online Professor David Murphy (November 15, 2015). "The Performance of Pan-Africanism: performing black identity at major pan-African festivals, 1966–2010" (Podcast). The University of Edinburgh. 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